Concise history with fangs – part four ( and the last)

Glamour, entertainment and science

From 19th century to this day

In the third part of this essay I presented two historic figures who became unwillingly two template vampires. The fact that they were both aristocrats influenced the way vampires have been perceived ever since - after a while these monsters started to be presented as sophisticated creatures, often Europeans of noble classes. They were knowledgeable, elegant, cultured, although savage. Additionally, they were presented as sensual and alluring – often because their incredible, much coveted and never changing youth. This is another significant element of our modern view of vampires, an element which separates them from their legendary ancestors, horrible monsters all of them, and all other fiends and ghouls: contemporary vampires do have sex appeal. Bloodlust, eroticism and death – a truly intoxicating mixture, perfect for any popular story or Hollywood production. How could we forget about such enticing creatures?

During the late 18th and 19th centuries the belief in vampires was widespread in parts of New England, particularly in Rhode Island and Eastern Connecticut. In this region there are many documented cases of families disinterring loved ones and removing their hearts in the belief that the deceased was a vampire who was responsible for sickness and death in the family (although the word "vampire" was never used to describe him/her). The deadly tuberculosis, or "consumption" as it was known at the time, was believed to be caused by nightly visitations on the part of a dead family member (who had died of consumption him/herself). The most famous (and latest recorded) case is that of nineteen year old Mercy Brown who died in Exeter, Rhode Island in 1892. Her father, assisted by the family physician, removed her from her tomb two months after her death. Her heart was cut out then burnt to ashes. An account of this incident was found among the papers of Bram Stoker and the story closely resembles the events in his classic novel, Dracula. Before we will progress to Dracula the book, though, let me present other vampire novels, almost forgotten now, which showed that new trend – glamourizing of monsters.

Perhaps the most significant contribution to the evolution of vampires was Dr. John Polidori's eighteenth century novel entitled The Vampyre (well, how else?). The fanged main character of this novel, called Lord Ruthven, is a magnetic, sensual bloodsucker - suave, sophisticated and able to seduce almost anyone he chooses.Charming and intelligent he might be, but he is also very fickle in his affections, absolutely cold- hearted type. Polidori wrote that novel as a satire, intending to insult Lord Byron, whom he had adored and who had recently discarded him. However, much to his horror, the public bestowed equal adoration on the Vampyre figure himself, and, as Polidori drifted into obscurity, many attributed the authorship of this astounding book to Byron . It was, you must admit, also an example of intellectual vampirism.

After the success of this novel the concept of the aristocratic vampire really took off, and a whole wave of similar tales precipitated over the following century. Sheridan LeFanu's famous novel Carmilla, published in 1871, used the vampire myth to explore forbidden aspects of sexuality, and, in doing so, created an interesting, overtly lesbian heroine who, despite her nature, attempted to resist harming the girl whom she truly loved. The vampire and the human had at last become directly entwined. There was also a lengthy penny dreadful serial written by James Malcolm Rymer (Varney the Vampire) but without any long-term significance.

Knowing that background we can deal now with “Dracula”, written by Bram Stoker in 1897. The book featured as its primary antagonist a vicious Count who was given not only new life but also a totally new historical background and bears almost no resemblance to the historic Vlad III Dracula.

Bram Stoker via Wikipedia

The novel is mainly composed of journal entries and letters written by several narrators who also serve as the novel's main protagonists; Stoker supplemented the story with occasional newspaper clippings to relate events not directly witnessed by the story's characters. The tale begins with Jonathan Harker, a newly qualified English solicitor, going to Count Dracula's crumbling, remote castle (situated in the Carpathian Mountains). The purpose of his mission is to provide legal support to Dracula for a real estate transaction. At first the young man is enticed by Dracula's gracious manner but soon he discovers that he has become his prisoner. One night, while searching for a way out, Harker falls under the spell of three wanton female vampires, the Brides of Dracula. He is saved at the last second by the Count, who wants to keep him alive. Finally Harker escapes from the castle but he is very ill. Not long afterward, a Russian ship, runs aground on the shores of Whitby, England, during a fierce tempest. All of the crew are missing. The captain's log is recovered, containing strange events which led to the gradual disappearance of the entire crew. An animal described as a large dog is seen on the ship leaping ashore. The ship's cargo is described as silver sand and boxes of "mould", or earth, from Transylvania. As you might guess Dracula arrives to London to track Harker’s devoted fiancée, Mina Murray, and her friend, Lucy Westenra. There is a notable encounter between Dracula and Seward's patient Renfield, an insane man who wants to consume different creatures in order to absorb their "life force". Renfield acts as a motion sensor, detecting Dracula's proximity and supplying clues accordingly.

Lucy begins to waste away suspiciously. Her suitors fret, and finally one of them, Seward, calls in his old teacher, Professor Abraham Van Helsing from Amsterdam. Van Helsing immediately determines the cause of Lucy's condition but refuses to disclose it. Van Helsing tries multiple blood transfusions, but they are not working. On a night when Van Helsing must return to Amsterdam (and his message to Seward asking him to watch the Westenra household is accidentally sent to the wrong address), Lucy and her mother are attacked by a wolf. Mrs Westenra, who has a heart condition, dies of fright, and Lucy apparently dies soon after.

Lucy is buried, but soon afterward the newspapers report children being stalked in the night by "beautiful lady". Van Helsing, knowing that this means Lucy has become a vampire, confides in Seward, Lord Godalming and Morris. The suitors and Van Helsing track Lucy down, and after a disturbing confrontation between her vampiric self and Arthur, they stake her heart, behead her, and fill her mouth with garlic. Around the same time, Jonathan Harker arrives home from recuperation in Budapest (where Mina joined and married him); they also join the coalition against Dracula.Dracula learns of the plot against him and he takes revenge by visiting and feeding from Mina at least three times. Dracula also feeds Mina his blood, creating a spiritual bond between them. The only way to forestall this is to kill Dracula first. Mina slowly succumbs to the blood of the vampire that flows through her veins, switching back and forth from a state of consciousness to a state of semi-trance during which she is telepathically connected with Dracula. This telepathic connection is established to be two-way, in that the Count can influence Mina, but in doing so betrays to her awareness of his surroundings.

After the group sterilizes all of his lairs in London, Dracula flees back to his castle in Transylvania, transported in a box with transfer and portage instructions forwarded ahead. He is pursued by Van Helsing's group. After a dramatic pursuit Harker shears Dracula through the throat with a Kukri while mortally wounded Quincey, slashed by one of the crew, stabs the Count in the heart with a Bowie knife. Dracula crumbles to dust,

Dracula souvenirs for sale via Wikipedia

and Mina is freed from his curse.
The book closes with a note about Mina's and Jonathan's married life and the birth of their first-born son, whom they name after all four members of the party, but refer to only as Quincey in remembrance of one of their friends.

According to literary historians, Nina Auerbach and David Skal in the Norton Critical Edition, the novel has become more significant for modern readers than it was for contemporary Victorians, most of whom enjoyed it just as a good adventure story; it only reached its broad iconic legendary classic status later in the 20th century when the movie versions appeared.

As we already mentioned movies…
The first film about vampires was released as early as 1922 – it was F. W. Murnau's seminal silent movie, Nosferatu, eine Symphonie des Grauens (A symphony of grays) . Then came the classic 1931 film "Dracula" starring Bela Lugosi (a Hungarian). As a homage to the first 1922 movie director Werner Herzog made the 1979 film Nosferatu the Vampyre which basic story is derived from Bram Stoker’s novel. Herzog considered Murnau's Nosferatu to be the greatest film ever to come out of Germany. The Vampyre was played by Klaus Kinsky (and if you like being afraid while watching a horror movie do see this one – old but incredibly scary; I was never able to watch it from the beginning to the very end).

In 1992 Francis Ford Coppola decided to shoot a new version of “Dracula”, a gothic romance-thriller, starring Gary Oldman as Dracula and Winona Ryder as his beloved Mina. In this movie Dracula was portrayed as a creature more human than ever, really a monster you can sympathize with. Despite some narrative confusions and dead ends I enjoyed the movie simply for the way it looked and felt. Production designers have simply outdone themselves.To tell you the truth I am yet to find a better vampire movie.

Filmmakers have interpreted the cult of vampires in many ways, some emphasizing the primal and ancient instinct of the ungodly, while others using vampires as tools to introduce generic horror and gore. For example, vampires have been portrayed as rock stars in Queen of the Damned, next door neighbors in Fright Night, space creatures in Lifeforce, melancholic aristocrats in Interview with the Vampire and criminals in From Dusk Till Dawn. They never ceased to entertain the public, though.


Movies and fiction are one thing, real life is just another, right? Do people still believe in vampires? You bet they do. It seems this belief not only persists to this day but also is spreading. While some cultures preserve their original traditions about the immortal, most modern-day believers are more influenced by the fictional image of the vampire as it occurs in films and literature.

In the 1970s, there were rumors (spread by the local press) that a vampire haunted Highgate Cemetery in London. Amateur vampire hunters flocked in large numbers in the cemetery. Several books have been written about the case, notably by Sean Manchester, a local man who was among the first to suggest the existence of the "Highgate Vampire" and who later claimed to have exorcised and destroyed a whole nest of vampires in the area.

In the modern folklore of Puerto Rico and Mexico, the chupacabra (goat-sucker) is said to be a creature that feeds upon the flesh or drinks the blood of domesticated animals, leading some to consider it a kind of vampire. The chupacabra mystery was frequently associated with deep economic and political crises, particularly during the mid-1990s.

During late 2002 and early 2003, hysteria about alleged attacks of vampires swept through the African country of Malawi. Mobs stoned one individual to death and attacked at least four others, including Governor Eric Chiwaya, based on the belief that the government was colluding with vampires (the best political accusation I’ve ever heard, this one!).


In January 2005, rumours began to circulate that an attacker had bitten a number of people in Birmingham, England, fueling concerns about a vampire roaming the streets. However, local police stated that no such crime had been reported. This case appears to be an urban legend.


In March 2007, self-proclaimed vampire hunters broke into the tomb of Slobodan Milosevic, former president of Serbia and Yugoslavia, and staked his body through the heart into the ground. Although the group involved claimed this act was to prevent Milosevic from returning as a vampire, it is not known whether those involved actually believed this could happen or if the crime was simply politically motivated.

Mistletoe, a plant - vampire

What contemporary science has to say? It seems doctors and scientists have found real vampires and the culprit as well. They say that the first step in understanding vampire lore is to understand some of the biological reasons that may have led to such beliefs. In zoology and botany, the term vampirism is known and used in reference to leeches, mosquitos, mistletoe, vampire bats, and other organisms that subsist on the bodily fluids of others.

Today many scientists believe that ancient people’s misunderstanding of decomposition resulted in many being accused of being vampires. As the body decomposes and the skin withers away it can create the illusion of growing hair or fingernails (and these grow anyway for some time after death). Also, as the body decomposes it can become filled with a gas causing it to swell. This swelling made many vampire hunters thinking a corpse looks well-nourished and must be rising from the dead at night to feast upon the living. If someone were to stake a cadaver swollen with gases it could cause the gases to look for an escape route due to the newfound pressure. Now we can imagine such a scenario: the gas passes out of the mouth, it comes into contact with the vocal chords and makes a groaning sound (or it could pass through the anus and make a sound similar to flatulence). Both these sounds could be confused with signs of life after death, especially by frightened, superstitious people “working” in darkness or semi-darkness.

A victim of porphyria

One of the most plausible medical explanations for vampire myths, though, is the disease called porphyria, which occurred frequently in Transylvania. Porphyrias are a group of inherited or acquired disorders of certain enzymes in the heme bio-synthetic pathway (also called porphyrin pathway). They are broadly classified as acute (hepatic) porphyrias and cutaneous (erythropoietic) porphyrias, based on the site of the overproduction and accumulation of the porphyrins (or their chemical precursors). They manifest with either neurological complications or skin problems (or occasionally both). In January 1964, L. Illis' 1963 paper, "On Porphyria and the Aetiology of Werwolves", was published in Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine. Later, Nancy Garden argued for a connection between porphyria and the vampire belief in her 1973 book, Vampires. In 1985, biochemist David Dolphin's paper for the American Association for the Advancement of Science, "Porphyria, Vampires, and Werewolves: The Aetiology of European Metamorphosis Legends", gained widespread media coverage, thus popularizing the connection. Vlad III the Impaler was also said to have suffered from acute porphyria, which may have started the notion that vampires were allergic to sunlight.Indeed porphyria results in rapid tissue damage, giving the victim a ghastly pallor and enlarged teeth due to gum damage. The effects of porphyria are greatly amplified upon exposure to the sun, making sun light something the victims would try to avoid at all costs. It is also believed that certain strains of porphyria are associated with neurological conditions, which would result in insanity. This condition might also explain the practice of drinking blood - these people would have done so trying to alleviate somehow their severe anemia.

Some doctors have also established a link between the disease rabies and the belief in vampires. They suggest that the “vampires” and "werewolves" that ancient people fiercely believed in were merely people in the late stages of rabies. Rabies can cause hypersensitivity, disruptions in sleep patterns (causing someone to become nocturnal for example), a bloody foaming at the mouth, and the urge to bite other people and/or animals.

There are also psychological aspects entangled in the vampire myths. Many historians have noted that the belief in vampires rises when ancient communities are going through times of mass outbreaks of disease. Perhaps the only way that ancient people knew how to explain these disease epidemics that were killing them were through the folkloric tales of vampires. Some of the psychologists of the Freudian field of thinking believe that vampires represent the darker side of human nature and these myths and legends are manifestations of secret human desires.

Regardless of the reason, vampires have become a mainstay in world culture, and to some they are very real. In the modern world, there is an entire subculture dedicated to the vampire. These groups of people often partake in the drinking of blood or sometimes they feed off the supposed life energy of another. This life energy feeding is often refereed to as psychic vampirism in the vampire community.

Do you still believe in vampires? If so, ponder over this. In 2006, Costas Efthimiou and Sohang Gandhi published a dissertation that, using geometric progression, makes the following statement: if each vampire's nourishment depended on making even one other person a vampire, it would only be a matter of years before the Earth's entire population was among the undead or vampires completely died out. Makes sense, doesn’t it?

A mosquito- the only vampire you should be afraid of.

My concise history with fangs ends here. Thank you for accompanying me during this long and scary journey through countries and ages – I hope you enjoyed it as much as I did!


Sources:

http://istina.rin.ru/eng/ufo/text/111.html
http://www.vampiresamongus.com/history.html
http://www.crystalinks.com/vampires.html
http://www.cse.unr.edu/~lambertt/vamp.html
http://www.bukisa.com/articles/384043_ancient-origins-of-the-vampire-myth-part-1
http://www.buzzle.com/articles/the-myth-legend-and-reality-of-the-vampire.html
http://www.bellaonline.com/articles/art36704.asp
http://www.paranormalhaze.com/real-vampires/

Concise history with fangs - part three

I didn’t manage to fit two interesting bios into the second part of my fanged history, although chronologically they belonged there. Their stories are too important to be simply skimmed and be done with, especially if you want to understand the further fate of vampire myths in the 20th and 21st century. These two people were highborn, influential and rich but certainly weren’t affected by vampirism. Why did they become the modern vamps' templates, portrayed and copied in many books and movies? It seems mainly because of a propaganda campaign implemented by a sly and dishonest king and also because we like horror stories too much to care whether they are true or not. Let me present today...

Part three


Two ultimate vampires who weren’t vampires at all.


Ladies first – the life and legend surrounding Countess Elizabeth Báthory de Ecsed (Báthory Erzsébet in Hungarian, 7 August 1560 – 21 August 1614) is dark and strange indeed. She has been labeled the most prolific female serial killer in history and, of course, a vampire. It is difficult to explain why a noblewoman like her turned a cruel murderer.

Elizabeth Bathory via Wikipedia

Her early life promised well. Elizabeth came from the renowned Báthory family of Hungarian nobility with a dragon adorning their family crest. Through her mother, Elizabeth was the niece of Stefan Báthory, King of Poland and Duke of Transylvania. She was a well-educated woman who could read and write in four languages - as a young girl she learned Latin, German and Greek. She was also interested in science and astronomy – something not very common among highborn ladies, especially at that times. There were several instances mentioned where she intervened on behalf of destitute women, including a woman whose husband was captured by the Turks and a woman whose daughter was raped and impregnated by a Turkish soldier– it might prove that she was kind and compassionate.

Young Elizabeth got engaged to Ferenc Nádasdy, and the couple married on 8 May 1575. Right afterwards Elizabeth moved to Nádasdy Castle in Sárvár and spent much time on her own, while her husband studied in Vienna. Nádasdy’s wedding gift to Elizabeth was his home, Csejte Castle, situated in the Little Carpathians near Trencsén; the castle itself was surrounded by a village and agricultural lands, bordered by outcrops of the Little Carpathians. It shows that Elizabeth was highly appreciated. In 1578, Nádasdy became the chief commander of Hungarian troops, leading them to war against the Ottomans. With her husband away at war, Elizabeth Báthory managed business affairs and the estates instead. That role usually included providing for the Hungarian and Slovak peasants. During the height of the Long War (1593–1606), she was even charged with the defense of her husband's estates, which lay on the route to Vienna. She was trusted and skilled, a woman you could rely on in those hard times.

Family crest of the Bathorys via Wikipedia

In 1585, Elizabeth gave birth to a daughter, Anna. A second daughter, Ursula, and her first son, Thomas, both died at an early age. After this, Elizabeth had three more children so I suppose her marriage was quite happy. Elizabeth's husband died in 1604 at the age of 47, reportedly due to an injury sustained in battle. The couple had been married for 29 years. After the death of Ferenz Nadasdy strange killings started to happen around his widow.

Somewhere between 1602 and 1604, a Lutheran minister called István Magyari complained about some horrible atrocities, allegedly occuring on the lands governed by Elizabeth and with her consent; he did it both publicly and with the court in Vienna. The Hungarian authorities took some time to react but finally, in 1610, as the situation deteriorated, King Matthias II of Hungary (ETA: not the same ruler as King Matthias Corvinus - thanks Tracy for spotting it!!!) assigned György Thurzo, the Palatine of Hungary and Elizabeth's cousin, to investigate. Thurzó ordered two notaries to collect evidence. Even before obtaining the results, Thurzó debated further proceedings with Elizabeth's son Paul and two of her sons-in-law. A trial and execution would have caused a public scandal and disgraced more than one noble and influential family; also Elizabeth's considerable property would have been seized by the crown. Thurzó, along with Paul and her two sons-in-law desperately wanted to control the damage - they originally planned for Elizabeth to be hidden a nunnery, but as accounts of her murdering  the daughters of lesser nobility spread, it was agreed that Elizabeth Báthory should be kept under strict house arrest. I really wonder whether they believed in her guilt or allowed her to explain herself. It was also determined that king Matthias would not have to repay his large debt to her, for which he lacked sufficient funds.

In 1610 and 1611, the notaries collected testimony from more than 300 witnesses. The trial records include the testimony of the four defendants, as well as thirteen witnesses. Priests, noblemen and commoners were questioned.. According to all this testimony, initial victims were the adolescent daughters of local peasants, many of whom were lured to Csejte by offers of well-paid work as maidservants in the castle. Later, Elizabeth allegedly started killing off daughters of the lesser gentry, who were sent to her gynaeceum by hopeful parents to learn courtly etiquette and find good husbands. Abductions were said to have occurred as well.

The descriptions of torture that emerged during the trials were often based on hearsay. The atrocities described most consistently included burning or mutilation of hands and faces, biting the flesh of different body parts, freezing to death, starving, sexual abuse, and finally surgeries on victims. Horrible, nasty deeds of a deranged mind.

Some witnesses named relatives who died while at the gynaeceum. Others reported having seen traces of torture on dead bodies, some of which were buried in graveyards, and others in unmarked locations. According to the testimony of the defendants, Elizabeth Báthory tortured and killed her victims not only at Csejte but also on her other properties. In addition several other people were named for supplying Elizabeth Báthory with young women. A little-known figure named Anna Darvulia was rumored to have influenced Báthory, but Darvulia was lucky and dead long before the trial so unable to comment.

Thurzó went to Csejte Castle on 30 December 1610 with his men. They reportedly found one girl dead and one dying. Another woman was found wounded, others locked up. King Matthias had urged Thurzo to bring Elizabeth to court and two notaries were sent to collect further evidence, but in the end no court proceedings against her were ever commenced. Her family had seen to that.

The countess was bricked in a set of rooms (and remained so until her death) but her associates were brought to court. A trial was held on 7 January 1611 at Bicse, presided over by Royal Supreme Court judge Theodosious Syrmiensis de Szulo and 20 associate judges. All of the defendants were found guilty and condemned to death, the sentence being carried out immediately.

The exact number of young women allegedly tortured and killed by Elizabeth Báthory is unknown, though it is often speculated to be as high as 650, between the years 1585 and 1610. During the trial and before their execution, Szentes and Ficko reported 36 and 37 respectively, during their periods of service. The other defendants estimated a number of 50 or higher. Many Sárvár castle personnel estimated the number of bodies removed from the castle at between 100 to 200. One witness who spoke at the trial mentioned a book in which a total of over 650 victims was supposed to have been listed by Elizabeth herself. This number became part of the legend surrounding Báthory. Reportedly, the location of the diaries is unknown but 32 letters written by Báthory are stored in the Hungarian state archives in Budapest.

On 21 August 1614, Elizabeth Báthory was found dead in her castle. Since there were several plates of food untouched, her actual date of death is unknown. She was buried in the church of Csejte, but due to the villagers' uproar over having "The Tigress of Csejte" buried in their cemetery, her body was moved to her birth home, where it is interred at the Báthory family crypt.

Several theories have been suggested concerning perpetrators of these horrible crimes and their motives. Most people think that Elizabeth was guilty and her sadism was a result of a considerable amount of intermarriages and inbreeding among the Bathory family with the usual problems of this practice. Allegedly she had a degenerate aunt, Clara Bathory, who used to invite young, bored, lonely Elizabeth to her castle to have "fun" and might have taught her a thing or two about sadistic pleasures.


László Nagy has argued that Elizabeth Báthory was a victim of a conspiracy, though. The conspiracy theory is consistent with Hungarian history of the reign of Mathias II - there was great conflict between religions, including Protestant ones, and this was related to the extension of Habsburg power over Hungary. As a Transylvanian Protestant aristocrat, Elizabeth belonged to a group generally opposed to the Habsburgs and some powerful people might have arranged a case against her. Elizabeth's life inspired numerous stories during the eighteenth and 19th centuries. The most common motif of these works was of course that of the evil countess drinking and bathing in her victims' blood in order to retain her beauty or/and youth – a real “Bloody Countess” or even a “Bloody Queen” – in short a female vampire extraordinaire. It remains to be proven whether she was a sadist or an innocent victim of some major set-up.

Now the time for the most famous vampire aristocrat -Vlad III, Prince of Wallachia (1431–1476), more commonly known as Vlad the Impaler (Romanian: Vlad Tepes) or simply as Dracula.

His Romanian surname Drăculea (also spelled "Drakulya"), means "son of the dragon". It was a reference to his father, Vlad II Dracul, who had joined the Order of the Dragon (lat. Societas Draconistrarum). This institution was highly respected and elitist – a monarchical chivalric order for selected nobility. The Order primarily flourished in Germany and Italy. According to a surviving copy of its statute, the Order required its initiates to defend the Cross and fight the enemies of Christianity, in particular the Ottoman Turks. Theoretically all its members should have supported each other and fight one common enemy but in reality they often kind of forgot about their allegiances for the sake of politics and greed.

In 1436, Vlad II Dracul ascended the throne of Wallachia but soon he was ousted in 1442 by rival factions in league with Hungary, his Christian ally. He had no choice and secured Ottoman support for his return agreeing to pay tribute to the Sultan and also send him two legitimate sons, Vlad III and Radu to the Ottoman court. They were to serve as hostages of his loyalty. Vlad III Dracula was the ferocious one – he was often imprisoned, whipped and beaten because of his verbal abuse towards his trainers and stubborn behavior; his younger brother, Radu, was meeker and much easier to control - he converted to Islam, entered the service of Mehmed II (later known as the Conqueror), and was allowed into the Topkapi Palace, honoured by the title Bey; later he was even given command of the Janissary contingents. A total failure from Vlad’s point of view.

In December 1447, boyars in league with the Hungarians rebelled against Vlad Dracul again, and killed him in the marshes near Bălteni. Mircea, Dracul's eldest son and heir, was captured, blinded and buried alive. To prevent Wallachia from falling into the Hungarian fold, the Ottomans invaded the country and put young Vlad III on the throne. It must have been painful and humiliating for the young prince, being installed on the throne as his greatest enemies’ puppet. Beggars are not choosers though. Still his rule was short-lived as Hungarians invaded Wallachia defending their interests. Vlad fled to Moldavia, where he lived under the protection of his uncle, Bogdan II, but it seems bad luck followed - in October 1451, Bogdan was assassinated and Vlad fled to Transsylvania, then under the Hungarian rule.

In 1456, three years after the Ottomans had conquered Constantinople, they threatened Hungary by besieging Belgrade. The Hungarian king began a concerted counter-attack in Serbia with Vlad fighting by his side. While the king moved into Serbia and relieved the siege Vlad led his own contingent into Wallachia, reconquered his native land and killed its Hungarian-affiliated ruler, Vladislav II, in an epic hand-to-hand combat (I would love to see that). Vlad found Wallachia in a wretched state: constant war had resulted in rampant crime, falling agricultural production, and the virtual disappearance of trade. Regarding a stable economy essential to resisting external enemies, he used severe methods to restore order and prosperity. Vlad considered the boyars the chief cause of the constant strife as well as of the death of his father and brother. To secure his rule, he had many leading nobles killed and gave positions in his council, traditionally belonging to the greatest boyars, to persons of obscure origins, who would be loyal to him alone, and some to foreigners. For lower offices, Vlad preferred knights and free peasants to boyars. In his aim of cleaning up Wallachia Vlad gave new laws punishing thieves and robbers. Vlad treated the boyars with the same harshness, because they were guilty of weakening Wallachia through their internal struggles for power. The older boyars and their families were immediately impaled. The younger and healthier nobles and their families were marched north to the ruins of Poienari Castle in the mountains above the Arges River. Vlad was determined to rebuild this ancient fortress as his own stronghold and refuge so he might monitor the movements of the Hungarians coming through Transylvania and the Turks of the Ottoman Empire. The enslaved boyars, their families and some master masons were forced to labor until their deaths, rebuilding the old castle with materials from another nearby ruin. According to tradition, they labored until the clothes fell off their bodies and then were forced to continue working naked. None survived the construction of castle Poienari, as those who did not die from exhaustion were impaled. This cruel policy was bound to backfire in the future but for the time being it seemed to be a right thing to do.

In 1459, Pope Pius II called for a new crusade against the Ottomans. The only European leader that showed enthusiasm for the crusade was Vlad of Wallachia. Later that year, in 1459, Mehmed sent envoys to Vlad urging him to pay a delayed tribute. The sultan had every right to demand it as he supported Vlad earlier but the prince refused to pay 10,000 ducats and send 500 recruits into the Ottoman forces. In order to provoke and instigate war with the Sultan Vlad, who knew Muslim culture very well, demanded the Turkish envoys raise their “hats” to him and, when they refused for religious reasons, he killed them by nailing their turbans to their heads. Subsequently, the Ottomans attempted to remove him - the Turks crossed the Danube and started to do their own recruiting by force of adolescent Romanians into the Janissary. Vlad allied himself with Matthias Corvinus , son of John Hunyadi (János Hunyadi), the King of Hungary, his former enemy. In the winter of 1462, Vlad crossed the Danube and devastated the entire Bulgarian land in the area between Serbia and the Black Sea. Disguising himself as a Turkish Sipahi, he infiltrated and destroyed Ottoman camps. In a letter to the Hungarian king, Corvinus dated 2 February he wrote:

I have killed peasants men and women, old and young, who lived at Oblucitza and Novoselo, where the Danube flows into the sea, up to Rahova, which is located near Chilia, from the lower Danube up to such places as Samovit and Ghighen. We killed 23,884 Bulgars without counting those whom we burned in homes or the Turks whose heads were cut by our soldiers...Thus, your highness, you must know that I have broken the peace with him (Sultan Mehmet II)

In response to this, Sultan Mehmed II raised an army of around 60,000 troops and 30,000 irregulars and in 1462 headed towards Wallachia. Commanding only 40,000 men, Vlad was unable to stop the Ottomans from entering Wallachia and occupying the capital Târgoviste but he never stopped guerrilla attacks and ambushes on the Turks, such as The Night Attack when 15,000 enemies were killed. The strategy proved to be very successful. Vlad III defeated Ottoman Sipahi commanders such as Iosuf Bey, Turkhanbeyoglu Omer Bey and Evrenos Bey. This instigated Mehmed II, who then crossed the Danube.

Poenari Castle today

Vlad III's younger renegate brother, the highly capable Radu Bey and his Janissary battalions, were given the task of leading the Ottoman Empire to victory at all expense by Sultan Mehmet II. After the Sipahis incursions failed to subdue Vlad, the few remaining Sipahis were killed in a night raid by Vlad III in 1462, killing possibly 4,000 of Radu's troops. However the war raged on, Radu and his formidable Janissary battalion was well supplied with a steady flow of gunpowder and money, this advantage allowed them to push deeper into the realm of Vlad III. Radu and his well equipped forces finally besieged and captured Poenari Castle the famed lair of his brother.

With the siege of this castle comes the first mention of Vlad's first wife who, according to local legend, was a noblewoman of unknown name and origin. She died during the siege. Allegedly a woodland archer, having seen the shadow of Vlad's wife behind a window, shot an arrow through the window with a message warning her that Radu's army was approaching. Some historians (McNally and Florescu) explain that the archer was most probably one of Vlad's relatives who sent the warning out of loyalty despite having converted to Islam and served in the ranks of Radu Bey - it was kindness, not a threat. Upon reading the message, however, Vlad's wife threw herself from the tower into a tributary of the Arges River flowing below the castle, saying she would rather rot and be eaten by the fish of the Arges than be led into captivity by the Turks. A total pessimist but she was right - the castle was taken by the Turks. Today, the tributary is called "the Lady's River".

After his difficult victory Radu was then given the title Bey of Wallachia. Vlad III was defeated because the Boyars had been alienated by Vlad's policy and disliked him as he was undermining their authority, and weakening their control over Wallachia. They joined Radu and believed that Ottoman protection was better than Hungarian occupation. Others had their families contained by the Ottomans and thus also sided with Radu in order to reunite with their loved ones. Until 8 September, Vlad obtained another three victories but continuous war had left him without any money and he could no longer pay his mercenaries. Vlad travelled to Hungary to ask for help from his former ally, Matthias Corvinus. But instead of receiving help he found himself arrested and thrown into the dungeon for high treason.

Matthias Corvinus feared that Vlad III and his forces might devastate the rural countryside of Hungary and instigate an Ottoman invasion. The king was also jealous of Vlad’s military successes, although they didn’t cost him a lot; after all he was also supposed to fight with the Turks but so far all the dirty work had been done by Dracula and his men. The exact length of Vlad's period of captivity is open to some debate, though indications are that it was from 1462 until 1474. Diplomatic correspondence from Buda seems to indicate that the period of Vlad's effective confinement was relatively short. Radu's openly pro-Ottoman policy as voivode probably contributed to Vlad's rehabilitation. Gradually winning back King Matthias's favour, he married Ilona Szilágyi, a cousin of the king, and in the years before his final release in 1474, lived with her in a house in the Hungarian capital. Around 1465, Ilona bore him two sons: the elder, Vlad IV Dracula, spent most of his time in the king's retinue and later was an unsuccessful claimant to the Wallachian throne. The younger, whose name is unknown, lived with the Bishop of Oradea in Transylvania until 1482.

On 26 November 1476, Vlad III declared his third reign and began preparations for the reconquest of Wallachia. In 1476, with Hungarian support, he invaded the country crossing the river Danube. It was a short campaign - it lasted little more than two months - Vlad was killed on the battlefield, during a fierce confrontation with the Ottoman Sipahis near Bucharest in 1476. Vlad III was buried in the Snagov monastery, and his head is believed to be in Istanbul. The Sultan finally got his tribute of a kind.

King Matthias Corvinus

After the death of Vlad the fame of his cruelty spread in the form of a pamphlet which tone was seriously exaggerated. The whole thing was promoted by none other than Matthias Corvinus, the king of Hungary. You can ask why a former ally would do such a thing to his dead protégé and it is a very good question. Apparently Matthias tarnished Vlad’s reputation and credibility for a political reason: as an explanation for why he had not helped Vlad fight the Ottomans in 1462, for which purpose he had received (and embezzled) money from most Catholic states in Europe. His smear campaign once again was very successful – to these days in the West, Vlad III has been characterized as a tyrant who took sadistic pleasure in torturing and killing his own people. According to the German stories the number of victims he had tortured and murdered was at least 80,000 - he allegedly had whole villages and fortresses destroyed and burned to the ground. These numbers are most likely exaggerated as all his life Vlad wanted to rebuild his country, not ruin it.

Two tragic stories full of cruelty and blood but devoid of any vampiric traits - next time I am going to improve that. In the final installment, most likely published next week, I will try to find out why these false legends and accusations proved to be so popular and how the vampires and werewolves are presented in popular culture nowadays. There will be also a paragraph or two about real illnesses which might make people look like vampires and/or werewolves.
 
Sources:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vlad_III_the_Impaler

http://istina.rin.ru/eng/ufo/text/111.html

 http://www.vampiresamongus.com/history.html

http://www.crystalinks.com/vampires.html

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_Bathory